Ellis Island Timeline

Date Description of Ellis Island Through History

1630 The Colonial governors of New Amsterdam purchased a small, 3.5-acre mud bank in Upper New York Bay, near the New Jersey shore. The Indians called it Kioshk, or Gull Island, after the birds that were its only inhabitants. The Dutch settlers called it "Oyster Island", after the many surrounding oyster beds. The Island barely rose above the surface at high tide.

1700s During the Colonial period, the Island was known as Dyre's; later it was called Bucking. In the 1760's, after some pirates were hanged from one of the island's scrubby trees, it became known as Gibbet Island.

1776 By the time of the American Revolution, the Island was owned by Samuel Ellis, a New York merchant and owner of a small tavern on the island catering to fishermen.

1808 Samuel Ellis's heirs sold the island to New York State. The name Ellis Island stuck. Later in the year, the Federal Government bought Ellis Island for $10,000.

1812 Shortly before the War of 1812, a battery of 20 guns, a magazine and a barracks were constructed on the island.

1834 By the terms of an interstate agreement, Ellis Island and neighboring Bedloe's Island (renamed Liberty island in 1956, site of the Statue of Liberty) were declared part of New York State, even though both islands are on the New Jersey side of the main ship channel. Ellis continued to serve as an arsenal until 1890. Nearby residents of Jersey City, Manhattan and Brooklyn worried for years about explosion of the powder magazines.

1890 The States turned over control of immigration to the Federal Government. The U.S. Congress appropriated $75,000 to build the first Federal immigration station on Ellis Island. Artesian wells were dug, and landfill (from incoming ships' ballast and New York City subway tunnels) doubled the size of Ellis to over six acres. While the new immigration station was under construction, the Barge Office on the Battery on the tip of Manhattan was used for immigration reception. During 1891, there were 405,664 immigrants, or about 80% of the national total, that were processed at the Barge Office.

01 Jan 1892 The First Ellis Island Immigration Station was officially opened. The first immigrant to pass through Ellis was a "rosy-cheeked Irish girl," Annie Moore, age 15, from County Cork. She came with her two younger brothers to join their parents in New York City. That first day, three large ships were waiting to land, and 700 immigrants passed through Ellis Island. In the first year, nearly 450,000 immigrants passed through the Island.

15 Jun 1897 A fire of undisclosed origin, possibly faulty wiring, completely destroyed the Georgia pine structures on Ellis Island. No one died, but most of the immigration records dating from 1855 were destroyed. In five years, some 1.5 million immigrants had been processed. While a new, fireproof immigration station was being constructed on Ellis, processing was transferred back to the Barge Office.

17 Dec 1900 The present Main Building, an impressive, French Renaissance structure in red brick with limestone trim was open. It cost some $1.5 million and was designed to process 5,000 immigrants per day. This was scarcely big enough for the surge in immigration in the pre-World War I years. The island was continuously enlarged with landfill, remodeling, additions and new construction.

1907 This was the peak year at Ellis Island with 1,004,756 immigrants received. The all-time daily high was on April 17th of this year when a total of 11,747 immigrants were processed.

1908 The Baggage and Dormitory Building was completed and capacity of the hospital was doubled. A dining room for 1,000 at a sitting was built on the top floor of the Kitchen and Laundry Building.

30 Jul 1916 Explosions believed set by German saboteurs at nearby Black Tom Wharf in New Jersey severely damaged the Ellis Island buildings. The most notable addition included in the repairs was the new ceiling over the Great Hall, a barrel vault constructed by the Guastavino brothers.

1917 When the U.S. entered the war in Europe, Ellis Island was used to detain crews from German merchant ships anchored in New York Harbor. Suspected enemy aliens throughout America were rounded up and brought to Ellis Island.

1918-19 The U.S. Army and Navy took over most of Ellis Island for use as a way station and treatment of returning sick and wounded American servicemen. During the war, there was a sharp decline in immigration as the numbers of newcomers passing through Ellis Island decreased from 178,416 in 1915, to just 28,867 in 1918.

1921 Post-war immigration quickly revived and 560,971 immigrants passed through Ellis Island in 1921. The first Immigration Quota Law passed the U.S. Congress, adding to the administration problems at Ellis Island. It provided that the number of any European nationality entering in a given year could not exceed three percent of foreign-born persons of that nationality who lived in the U.S. in 1910. Nationality was to be determined by country of birth, and no more than 20 percent of the annual quota of any nationality could be received in any given month. The total number of immigrants admissible under the system was set at nearly 358,000, but numerous classes were exempt.

1924 The Immigration Act of 1924 further restricted immigration, changing the quota basis from the census of 1910 to that of 1890, and reducing the annual quota to some 164,000. This marked the end of mass immigration to America. The Immigration Act also provided for the examination and qualification of immigrants at U.S. consulates overseas. The main function of Ellis Island changed from that of an immigrant processing station, to a center of the assembly, detention, and deportation of aliens who had entered the U.S. illegally or had violated the terms of admittance. The buildings at Ellis Island began to fall into disuse and disrepair.

1930s Funds from the Public Works Administration permitted the landfill addition of recreation grounds on the Manhattan side of the Main Building. Works Progress Administration (WPA) labor added landscaping, new playgrounds and gardens on new landfill between Units 2 and 3. As a result of these efforts, Ellis Island reached its present 27.5 acres

1938-1945 During World War II, Ellis Island facilities were used by the Coast Guard to house and train recruits. After the U.S. entered the war in December 1941, Ellis Island was again used as a detention center for suspected enemy aliens and as a hospital for returning wounded servicemen. The detainees became so numerous that the immigration functions had to be transferred to Manhattan for lack of room on Ellis.

1946 Following the decommissioning of the Coast Guard Station, Ellis Island remained in use primarily as a detention center for aliens whose status was questioned.

1950 A brief flurry of activity occurred on Ellis Island after the passage of the Internal Security Act of 1950, which excluded arriving aliens who had been members of Communist and Fascist organizations. Remodeling and repairs were performed on the buildings to accommodate detainees who numbered as many as 1,500 at one time.

1952 As a result of the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1952 and a liberalized detention policy, the number of detainees on Ellis Island dropped to less than 30.

Nov 1954 Ellis Island, with its 33 structures, was closed and declared excess Federal property.

1954-65 Ellis Island was under jurisdiction of the General Services Administration.

11 May 1965 President Lyndon B. Johnson issued Proclamation 3656 adding Ellis Island to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, thus placing Ellis Island under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.

1976 Ellis Island was opened to the public for visits. Sixty-minute guided tours were limited to the Main Building. Over 50,000 visited the island in 1976.

1984 Visitation had reached 70,000 per year when the current restoration began. The non-profit Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., chaired by Lee A. Iacocca, raised all the funds from private citizens, corporations and other groups. In collaboration with the National Park Service, it also lets contracts for the work.

Ellis Island Information

Holistic Health

FRONTLINE traces the mainstreaming of alternative medicine to the halls of Congress and one U.S. senator's allergies. Viewers meet Sen. Tom Harkin (D-Iowa), who recalls complaining to a friend about his terrible allergies. The friend said he knew someone who could cure the senator's allergies using bee pollen.

"I went on this very tough regimen of taking a lot of bee pollen, sometimes as much as sixty pills a day," Harkin tells FRONTLINE. "And literally on about the tenth day, all of a sudden my allergies just left. Well, that's when I began to think, 'We've got to have somebody looking at these different approaches.'"

Harkin, the chairman of the Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education Committee, convinced Congress to allocate $2 million to the National Institutes of Health (NIH) for the study of alternative medicine. Ten years later, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) has a budget of over $100 million and is funding hundreds of research projects around the nation.

In 1994, Congress passed the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA), a controversial bill that limited the Food and Drug Administration's power to regulate dietary supplements at a time when the FDA was gearing up to increase its regulation of what has since become an $18 billion a year industry. Supporters claim that the bill protects the freedom of American consumers to take care of their own health by assuring access to a range of natural products.

National Center for Alternative and Complementary Medicine
Affiliated with the National Institute for Health, NCCAM is the federal government's lead agency for scientific research on complementary and alternative medicine. This comprehensive website describes different kinds of treatments, defines terms and reports research findings, and offers a variety of FAQs, fact sheets, etc.

The White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy (WHCCAMP)
The WHCCAMP was created by Executive Order on March 7, 2000. Comprised of doctors, public health officials, and experts in alternative medicine, the purpose of the commission was to explore pressing issues in CAM, notably research, public access, information dissemination, and the licensing of practioners. Upon publishing a final report of its findings and policy recommendations in March 2002, WHCCAMP was terminated by Executive Order. Visitors to the WHCCAMP website can read the commission's final report, learn about the commission's members, and read expert testimony.

Alternative Medicine Home Page
Created by a medical librarian at the University of Pittsburgh, this site contains an extensive selection of links to resources about complementary and alternative medicine, including government sources, searchable databases, and directories of practioners.

Other references and links:
? Alternative Medicine Association
This site offers a number of useful information resource guides on different alternative treatments and a database of studies and articles on many herbal supplements.

? The Office Of Cancer and Complementary Alternative Medicine
The Office of Cancer and Complementary Alternative Medicine was established at the National Cancer Institute in 1998 to coordinate the agency's CAM-related research. OCCAM's website includes information about clinical trials and a comprehensive cancer database.

Research Studies on CAM

? Current Research
This is a list of NCCAM's ongoing clinical trials of over more than 80 types of alternative and complementary medicine, from acupuncture to yoga. Entries are indexed both by treatment or by disease or condition treated, with contact information and the status of each project.

? Understanding Clinical Trials
A primer from NCCAM on understanding how clinical trials of complementary and alternative medicines are conducted, plus information on how to participate in a trial.

? The International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements (IBIDS) Database
Run jointly by the NIH and the USDA, the IBIDS Database allows visitors to access citations and abstracts from thousands of herbal supplement studies published in peer-reviewed scientific journals. The database also contains links to consumer-oriented literature as well.

? CAM on PubMed
"CAM on PubMed" was created by the National Institutes of Health as a special subset of the National Library of Medicine's (NLM) database of published studies relating specifically to complementary and alternative therapies. Visitors can perform keyword searches to access citations and abstracts of scientific studies on CAM methods, as well as links to many full-text articles.

? MEDLINEplus: Alternative Medicine
Also jointly administered by the NIH and the NLM, MEDLINEplus provides information about CAM-related published studies, clinical trials, and news releases. It also has links to additional resources on alternative therapies indexed by modality, and a search engine that allows visitors to research alternative medicine topics arranged alphabetically from A - Z.

? ClinicalTrials.gov
ClinicalTrials.gov is a service provided by the National Institutes of Health. Visitors can search the database by disease or by funding organization to learn up-to-date information about human clinical research being conducted in the United States.

? Search the Studies at NIH
This website allows visitors to search studies being conducted at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center by condition, symptom, or keyword.

Dietary and Herbal Supplements

? The Food and Nutrition Information Center
Part of the US Department of Agriculture, the FNIC is a great resource to learn about dietary and herbal supplements. The FNIC website includes a database of scientific published studies, as well as government reports and warnings.

? The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition is part of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and has extensive information about dietary supplements, including FAQs, FDA warnings, safety information, and industry regulations.

? Dietary Supplements: A Consumer Guide (PDF)
The National Consumers League (NCL), a well-established non-profit organization dedicated to promoting the interest of consumers and workers on issues relating to child labor, privacy, and food safety, has produced a highly readable two-page brochure on dietary supplements. It provides easy-to-understand information about how to read dietary supplement labels, a glossary of terms, and a checklist of questions to ask before buying any herbal product.

? What's the Story? Drug-Supplement Interaction
A feature on drug-supplement interactions, including a detailed table of which drugs and herbal supplements "don't mix," from the American Council on Science and Health, Inc. (ACSH), a non-profit dedicated to educating consumers on issues related to nutrition and health issues.

? The Office of Dietary Supplements at the National Institutes of Health
The Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the NIH funds research on dietary supplements and disseminates the research findings. ODS provides fact sheets on a variety of dietary and herbal supplements, safety information, consumer resources, and links to dietary supplement research centers.

? The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) Special Report: "Health Products for Seniors: Anti-aging Products Pose Potential for Physical and Economic Harm"

(PDF) The GAO's special report was presented at a hearing of the Senate Select Committee on Aging on September 10, 2001. The report focuses on products marketed to seniors because, as the authors state, "seniors are thought to be at particular risk of physical harm because they often take multiple prescription pharmaceuticals, increasing their risk of possibly dangerous drug-supplement interactions."

Appendix II of the report (pp. 28-33) provides a table of known adverse effects, contraindications, and interactions for each of the following herbal supplements and specialty products: evening primrose oil, garlic, ginkgo biloba, ginseng, kava kava, saw palmetto, St. John's Wort, valerian, chondroitin sulfate, coenzyme Q10, DHEA, glucosamine, melatonin, omega-3 fatty acids, soy proteins, and shark cartilage.

Acupuncture

? Accupuncture Information and Resources from NCCAM
Includes FAQs, practitioner referral sources, and an explanation of existing theories about whether, and how, acupuncture works.

? National Institutes of Health Consensus Statement on Acupuncture
A review of the research on acupuncture's effectiveness.

? American Academy of Medical Acupuncture (AAMA)
The AAMA is a professional association of acupuncturists. Its website is loaded with information, including certification requirements, a listing of hospitals that provide medical acupuncture as well as a state-by-state listing of private practioners, and news and events.

? British Acupuncture Council (BAC)
The BAC is an association of acupuncture practioners in Britain. On the BAC site you can read about the history of acupuncture and the medical conditions it is most likely to help. It also has a Q & A section for the most commonly asked questions about acupuncture.

? British Medical Acupuncture Society (BMAS)
The BMAS is an association of medical practioners who work or are interested in acupuncture. On the BMAS site you can find information for patients, as well as a link to the medical journal, Acupuncture in Medicine, which you can search for abstracts.

Homeopathy

? National Center for Homeopathy (NCH)
The NCH is a non-profit dedicated to educating the public about homeopathy. The NCH site provides detailed information on homeopathy, a link to a database of studies, and a directory to find a homeopath. You can also get connected to a local study group in your area.

? North American Society of Homeopaths (NASH)
NASH is a professional association of registered homeopaths. The NASH website provides a directory of registered homeopaths, as well as links to the organization's journal and newsletter.

Interview: Andrew Weil, M.D.

Healthy Skin Healthy Body
Rewarding Experience
Celebrity and author Dr. Nicholas V. Perricone
finds his work incredibly fulfilling


If you've been watching television lately, browsing through bookstores or thumbing through national magazines, chances are you've come across the name Nicholas V. Perricone, M.D. One minute he's chatting with Diane Sawyer or Barbara Walters about the benefits of eating salmon, the next he's hitting the public television airwaves to raise millions for educational TV in programs based on his two number one New York Times best selling books The Wrinkle Cure and The Perricone Prescription

As his celebrity grows, so does his ability to improve life for millions of Americans, right where it shows-on their skin. For Dr. Perricone, who is in his mid-50's, this kind of impact has only been possible because the first life he improved was his own. "Everyone has a mission in life," he says. "And if you want to be able to carry yours out, you need a good mind and body-so, I had to be sure I had that myself before I could help anyone else."

Back in 1971, when Perricone was a 23-year-old English-literature graduate, with a stint in the Army to his credit, he found himself physically and mentally exhausted. In an effort to find out what was wrong, he underwent a complete physical exam. The doctor proclaimed him to be in perfect health despite his debilitating symptoms. Frustrated by the lack of answers, Perricone experienced first-hand, the limits of traditional medicine. This began his life-long investigation into the powerful healing benefits of nutrition. With no guidance from his own physician, he determined to figure out what was wrong and fix it himself. An avid reader, he turned his attention to books on nutrition, beginning with the works of Adele Davis, an early advocate of healthy diet. He immediately followed her recommendations to eat more protein and take nutritional supplements.

About the same time, he also accepted his first job-as program coordinator in the Connecticut office of the Muscular Dystrophy Association, a national organization that helps children with muscular dystrophy and related neuromuscular diseases. "There had recently been a breakthrough in using vitamin E to help kids with muscular dystrophy," he remembers, adding that he soon added this powerful antioxidant to his daily regimen. "I just fell into using it and it changed my life."

An exercise component soon followed and within a few months, Dr. Perricone was feeling "terrific." In fact, he was so energized that he quickly-and intensively-rekindled an interest in medical school, which had lain dormant through his military service. He began taking night classes in organic chemistry and physics to fulfill his core science requirements, while working full time during the day and applying to medical schools on his lunch breaks. "The course work was interesting," he says now. "But even at that point I knew all about nutrition and wondered about its effect on the disease process and why that was never mentioned." That oversight became his obsession.

Accepted at Michigan State medical school, Dr. Perricone soon had a chance to begin challenging traditional teachings in the classroom. He observed under the microscope that every illness, from heart disease to cancer, showed signs of inflammation. "I asked my professor why that was and he said that the body was mounting an immune response, but I didn't buy it," he says. "What does inflammation have to do with cancer? And why is it present in disease and in aging skin?


By dictating his course notes into a cassette tape that he played back around the clock, Dr. Perricone accelerated his course work, graduating in under three years, as opposed to the traditional four-year program. From Michigan he moved on to the Yale Pediatrics program, where he crossed paths with Dr. Sidney Hurwitz, an old friend who was one of the first pediatric dermatologists in the country. Dr. Hurwitz raved about dermatology, describing it as the best area in medicine from which to explore a wide range of interests. Dr. Perricone liked the idea and began a three-year residency in dermatology at the Ford Medical Center in Detroit. Once enrolled he immediately focused his attention on his earlier questions about the relationship between inflammation, disease and aging.

Because of his extensive knowledge of nutrition, he began mixing up vitamin C concoctions to test on his own sunburned skin. Using ascorbyl palmitate, a synthetic ester of vitamin C that is fat soluble (as opposed to the water-soluble ascorbic acid), he found that it penetrated the skin quickly and had a high level of healing properties that quickly made his sunburn disappear.

Dr. Perricone soon expanded his focus to alpha lipoic acid, an especially powerful antioxidant that reaches into all portions of the cell to provide protection from free radicals-the culprits that create and perpetuate inflammation. "Alpha lipoic acid boosts energy production in your cells, just as it helps the mitochondria change food to energy. As you know the higher the energy level in the cell, the more youthful you remain. The importance of alpha lipoic acid-the metabolic antioxidant-is hard to overstate."

It can also safeguard other antioxidants in the skin, such as vitamins E and C, for extra protection. Dr. Perricone found that regular topical use of alpha lipoic acid diminishes the appearance of fine lines, wrinkles and scars.

His experience in confirming these results was especially rewarding. A group of plastic surgeons in Texas performed a double-blind placebo controlled study on the effect of topical lipoic acid on scarring in young children after cleft lip palate surgery. At the end of 18 months, the children who used lipoic acid showed much less scarring and deformity than those receiving the placebo. "It was really gratifying to see the research benefit young children," he explains.


Much of this research was used to substantiate the theories he espouses in The Wrinkle Cure, which was in the top five of the New York Times bestseller list for 19 weeks-four of those at Number 1. The Perricone Prescription which came out in August 2002, spent 18 weeks on the New York Times bestseller list and four weeks in the Number 1 position. The book advocates a three-pronged approach to skin aging: diet, supplements and cosmeceuticals.

Not surprisingly Dr. Perricone follows his own advice, beginning with diet, where the principal tenet is that sugar is the enemy. "Sugar causes inflammation, inflammation causes aging," he notes. "Fifty percent of skin aging is a result of sugar. It's as bad for your skin as sun exposure. If just a drop of sugar is added to a cell culture of fibroblasts, within a minute or two we can measure a sharp rise of inflammatory chemicals in the cells.

He also shuns the type of carbohydrates, such as pasta, breads and potatoes, that rapidly raise blood sugar levels, resulting in inflammation on a cellular level that leads to wrinkles and other disease processes. Instead, he advocates salmon and green salads with olive oil for omega-3s and anti-inflammatory chemicals. Berries are also good because they are rich in antioxidants.

One of Dr. Perricone's key concerns in maintaining an anti-aging lifestyle is the control of stress. "Of all the destructive, proinflammatory and proaging forces I have observed as a physician, nothing compares to stress. Stress causes various hormonal changes in your body that rapidly alter cellular function in your vital organs." According to Dr. Perricone, the real danger of stress is that it increases the levels of cortisol in the body. In excessive amounts, the hormone cortisol can cause brain cells to die, increase blood sugar levels and negatively impact on the immune system.

He's also dedicated to exercise-but not to excess. "I take one or two days a week off," he says, "because overexercising can put you in a proinflammatory state." Dr. Perricone's workouts typically consist of a three-mile run on his home treadmill, followed by a 45-minute weight-training session every other day.

When it comes to supplements, Dr. Perricone sees himself as his own "guinea pig," because of his constant tinkering to arrive at the perfect mix. He starts each day with glutamine powder dissolved in water taken on an empty stomach for healthy maintenance of his GI track. After that comes taurine, L-carnitine, acetyl-L-carnitine, pantothenic acid and B6. He also uses N-acetyl cysteine and alpha lipoic acid to raise levels of glutathione in his cells and takes B complex and grape seed extract, DMAE and MSM, because of their powerful anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. "A diet high in DMAE will enable you to think more clearly, improve your memory and increase your problem-solving ability." Phosphatidylserine is on the list for cognitive enhancement, and chromium nicotinate regulates his blood sugar levels. A few times a day, he'll take zinc, extra folic acid, selenium and CoQ10, as well as stocking up on extra minerals like calcium and magnesium. Of the success of the overall regimen, he says: "Very rarely do I get sick."

Staying healthy, of course, means he can continue to carry his message to an ever-expanding audience. "After I went to medical school, I was able to apply my basic health principals to my patients and change their lives," he says. "The books and my two television specials airing nationally on the Public Broadcasting System (PBS) has helped reach even more people, allowing them to maintain their health goals. I have about 50 more research projects that I'm working on, which will help even more people. It's incredibly fulfilling." Dr. Perricone is a long-time member of the Life Extension Foundation.

-Twig Mowat
Life Extension Magazine Profile

Herbs - The Basics

Herbs - the primary source of medicine for people of every culture. Herbs have been mentioned in historical literature, and in the Bible. What more? The Bible tells us, "I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of the earth, and every tree, in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat." Man has used herbs to treat his illnesses for thousands of years. Herbs are safe and extremely reliable, with no side effects.

First, the term "herbs" applied to non - woody plants. Today, the word "herbs" refers to any part of any plant used for flavoring or medicine. You can find herbs in your kitchen; for example: the mustard on your table and many of the spices on your kitchen shelf come from herbs. There are many, many examples of herbal uses in your every day's life. Herbs are miracles of Mother Nature.

People always sought help through the herbs, because herbs are natural sources; unlike drugs that produce countless side effects, herbs can realign the body's defenses, helping it to heal itself with no side effects.

Herbs are natural remedies. Herbs were always the natural medicines for the human being. Writing about herbs we should mention the types of herbal medicine systems that are used today; European, Native, American, Chinese, Ayurvedic, and Western herbalist are the most prevalent systems. All of the systems treat the body as a "whole", and they each utilize the energy of herbs to "work as needed" in synergy with the natural energy in each individual. So use herbs to have natural, vital energy to do things you enjoy, to have the ability to maintain your body's natural immune system to protect you from diseases. There are many benefits of herbs. Let' s write about some of them. Herbs help cleanse and purify the body without side effects. Herbs regulate and tone the glands to function normally. Herbs are high in vitamins and minerals and other nutrients that nourish and build the body. Herbs allow the body to have extra energy to heal itself, and finally herbs promote the body's natural good bacteria.

Herbs take up substances from the earth and convert them into vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats that our bodies use for nourishment and healing. By using the whole plants or herbs, we take in all the vital ingredients they carry. Most herbs contain several active substances, one of which usually dominates and determines its choice as a remedy. Other healing aspects of the herbs should not be overlooked because they help the body to assimilate its benefits and buffer any side effects.

Herbs work synergistically, so combining them enhances each herb's properties, helping to bring greater healing to the body. For example, a good mixture to help induce sleep combines passiflora, valerian, and hops. All three herbs have relaxant properties, but passiflora specializes in aiding sleep, valerian relaxes muscle tension, and hops have a marked effect on relaxing the nervous system.

In herbology, herbs are perceived to have varying combinations of qualities and degrees of each quality, too. Herbs can be both heating and drying, or heating and moistening. It can be cooling and drying, or cooling and moistening. One herb can be very warming, while another may be just slightly warming. But both are considered heating herbs.

The way in which these qualities are assigned to plants is really very simple. Heating herbs are believed to produce warmth in the body. Generally speaking, all of the aromatic herbs, such as anise and caraway, are considered warming. Many of the bitter herbs, such as Oregon grape, are also classified as heating.

Cooling herbs, on the other hand, are those which healers believe take heat away from the body, or from some part of the body. Often, herbs that contain highly volatile oils (like wintergreen or spearmint) are categorized as cooling. Cooling herbs (borage is another example) are known as refrigerants. To get an idea of what a refrigerant is, think of a hot summer day, and then imagine eating a slice of watermelon or cucumber. These are two of the best-known refrigerant foods.

Whether an herb is classified as moistening or drying depends on its individual properties, also. An herb that has been observed to increase urination, such as bearberry, is considered drying. Any astringent herb, such as oak bark or sage, is also called drying. Usually the aromatics (like anise or caraway) are thought of as drying. But there are exceptions: fennel, for example, is regarded as moistening (it is said to increase milk in lactating women ). An herb is also considered to be moistening if it is mucilaginous or demulcent (soothing). Flax seed, marshmallow, licorice, and slippery elm are good examples of this latter type of moistening herb.

One way European herbalists began to develop a better understanding of herbal properties was to think in terms of parts of the body that they thought were influenced by each herb. That is, they began to define for each herb specific "centers of activity" in the body; For example, cayenne pepper, classified as a heating herb, was designated as affecting the circulatory system because it was observed to increase the flow of blood, especially to the capillaries near the surface of the skin. Perhaps this explains why people who live in very hot climates use hot peppers in their cooking. The peppers may actually help them to dissipate body heat by circulating it to the skin surface, where it then causes cooling as perspiration evaporates and heat radiates into the surrounding air.

Ginger is another heating herb that is assigned properties similar to those of cayenne. But ginger's center of activity is defined as lying primarily in the internal organs. In the traditional European system, it is thought to create a type of heat that stays inside the body; Ginger is therefore used by herbalists in the winter and in more northern climates. They employ it as a remedy for colds and to "strengthen" the kidneys and bladder. These differences between cayenne and ginger are due to the body's different centers of activity for each herb.

To make matters more complex, herbs are not limited to just one center of activity, either. There are many herbs that are used to treat several diverse problems at once, such as acne, constipation, headaches, lethargy, and indigestion, for example. The primary center of action for such an herb could theoretically be the liver and gall bladder, where it would be thought to cause an increase in bile secretion. The theory goes like this: Increased bile secretion improves digestion of fats and oils, which in turn improves complexion. An increase of bile will also help alleviate chronic constipation. Cleansing the colon is an important function. The accumulation of toxins in the bowels, due to poor food decomposition and elimination, contributes toward a generally toxic condition which can result in many of the symptoms listed above. Toxins in the colon are absorbed by the blood, therefore, the cleaner the colon is, the cleaner the blood will be. And the liver helps filter toxins from the blood. If the liver's rate of activity is increased, then the blood will contain fewer toxins. Many gall bladder liver entered herbs -such as Oregon grape-are described as affecting the body in all these ways. Such theories are simplistic in modem medical terms, and largely unsubstantiated by medical research. But traditional herbology does not approach healing from the perspective of laboratory analysis. It has always been based on empirical observation of individual people.

Nota bene, the ancient nations, like Egyptians, were highly skilled with herbs. The ancient text written in 1500 BC contains references to more than 700 herbal remedies, including herbs such as caraway seed, aloe, poppy, and garlic. However the Chinese have practiced herbal use for 5000 years. The Chinese are noted for their knowledge and use of ginseng. So do not be afraid to use the herbs in your kitchen. Talk about herbs and their important part in our life. There are endless other topic, supporting the beneficial effects of herbs, including herbal compounds, herbs quality, methods of preparation, herbal dosage, and nutritional content. And remember - using herbs or herbal products - means healthier life. So enjoy the herbs, aromatherapy, vitamins, and life!

Herbal Wisdom

16 Essential Weight Loss and Fitness Strategies

1. In the beginning, your fitness program should not be overly aggressive. One of the biggest problems people encounter when starting a fitness program is rapidly depleted motivation after only a few weeks due to an overly ambitious fitness program. Attempting to do too much too fast is worse than doing nothing at all! Because then you feel like exercise is too hard and it's just not for you.

Start out slow, maybe just shooting for 1 or 2 workouts a week. Once you have successfully added that to your normal routine, then attempt to slowly add to your fitness program. Plus, most people don't need to exercise more than 3-4 times a week. That doesn't mean you can't exercise more; it's just not necessary.

2. Always have a detailed plan! In order to reach your health and fitness goals, you must have a road map to follow. I can't stress this enough. If you are unsure of how to put together a fitness plan, or if you're uncertain of the effectiveness of the one you have, I highly recommend you consult a professional fitness trainer. With a well thought out plan you are much more likely to be successful!

3. Set realistic, attainable goals. You must have tangible, quantifiable, short and long-term goals so you can measure and assess your progress. Too many people have totally unrealistic expectations of what to expect from an exercise and nutrition program. The best way for you to understand what is realistic and attainable is to talk with a fitness professional, not to buy into the 'hype' of infomercials and diet and fitness products that are blatantly misleading.

4. Keep a journal! This is one of the most important things you can do. If you're not tracking what you're doing, how will you know what worked? There are quite a few great exercise and nutrition logs I've come across. You should keep track of all your exercise and also each day's food intake.

There's a company called NutraBiotics that makes a great 90-day journal that can be used to track strength training, cardiovascular exercise, and daily nutrition. If you would like more information on this journal, please feel free to call me at 240-731-3724.

5. You must be accountable! Set exercise appointments with yourself if you're not working with a personal fitness trainer. Use your appointment book to set aside times for exercise, just like you do for meetings or events. Don't let things get in the way. Nothing is more important than your health! If you don't have your health you can't effectively do anything. I often have mothers tell me that they can't find time to exercise because they have to take care of their children. I have 4 daughters myself, and a baby on the way, so I know exactly how hard it is. Whatever your situation is, making the commitment to exercise and your health IS possible, and very important. Plus, it sets a great example for the children!

6. Remember the benefits of exercise. Being physically fit affects every aspect of your life: you sleep better, eat better, love better, overcome stress better, work better, communicate better, and live better! Remember how good it feels to finish a workout, and how great it feels to meet your goals!

7. Exercise safely and correctly. So much time is wasted doing, at best, unproductive exercise, or at worst, dangerous exercise. Educate yourself on how to exercise correctly. The best way to do that is to hire a personal fitness trainer. It could be for just a few sessions to learn the basics, or it could be for a few months to learn everything. It's completely up to you. But statistics prove that these who understand how to exercise correctly get better, faster results. And that's what you want, right?

8. Enjoy your exercise! For example, if you hate doing strength training, try to find ways to make it more enjoyable. Circuit training might be a more fun and exciting way to fit this important part of fitness into your program. The key is you should enjoy it, and if you don't you need to look for other exercises or activities to replace whatever it is you don't enjoy.

If you don't enjoy it, how do you expect to stick with it?

9. Make time to stretch! It has so much benefit and takes very little time. So many people suffer from various aches and pains of which most can be eliminated by basic stretches! Try to spend at least 5 minutes after each workout stretching. For more information on stretching and how it eliminates aches and pains, please call 240-731-3724 to request a FREE copy of my special report "No More Back Pain."

10. Don't think you need to exercise 5 days a week! I touched on this earlier. Many people feel they're getting fat because they're not exercising. Totally not the case! Exercise is not the answer! It's all in your eating habits. However, exercise can aid in burning body fat, plus there are numerous health benefits. Think of exercise as a bonus.

How many people do you know who exercise 3-5 times per week, but still fail to meet their weight loss and fitness goals? I've met hundreds!

First look at your eating habits, such as: when you eat, what you eat, how much you eat, where you eat, and how often you eat.

11. Never skip breakfast, or any meal! If you want to maximize your fitness or fat-loss efforts you've got to eat breakfast! So many people skip breakfast, and it's the worst thing you could ever do when it comes to fat-loss. Skipping meals throws your blood sugar all out of whack and it sets you up to store your next meal as fat, almost guaranteed!

12. Eat fat to lose fat. Healthy fats are necessary to your body for numerous reasons: regulating hormonal production, improving immune function, lowering total cholesterol, and providing the basics for healthy hair, nails, and skin.

The key is to eat the right types of fats. The 'good' fats are monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats like olive oil, canola oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, and avocados, to name a few. The 'bad' fats are partially hydrogenated oils, and trans fats. Most processed foods contain large amounts of these bad fats. For more information on the different types of fats, please call 240-731-3724 to request a FREE copy of my Healthy Eating Guidelines.

13. Drink plenty of fresh, clean water. Yes, I know that you have probably heard this one over and over again. But there's a reason for that, it's that important! The recommended daily intake of water is 8 glasses, or 64 oz. You should even be drinking even more if you are active or exercise regularly.

And no, soda, juice, coffee, and tea DON'T count! Nearly every chemical process place in your body, takes place in water! Proper blood flow and digestion are both affected by how much water you drink, and poor blood flow and digestion can be linked to numerous health conditions.

14. Stabilize your blood sugar! If you want to burn fat and prevent your body from putting it back on, you must stabilize your blood sugar. In order to do this you need to eat small, balanced meals or snacks every 2-3 hours.

Fasting, skipping meals, and overly restrictive diets will enable you to lose weight in the short run. The weight you lose is primarily water weight and muscle tissue, and in the long run has opposite effect of what you want. When you restrict your diet, your body instinctively thinks it's being starved and shifts into a protective mode by slowing down the metabolism and storing nearly all calories as body fat. Plus, losing muscle tissue is the last thing you want to do. Muscle burns calories, even while you sleep. You should be focused on increasing, or at least maintaining muscle tissue.

15. Focus on increasing muscle tissue. As I mentioned previously, muscle burns calories, so if you want to increase your metabolism, you have to increase your muscle. The best way to do that is with progressive strength training. That doesn't mean you have to join a gym, buy expensive fitness equipment, or follow some bodybuilding workout program; it simply means you need to challenge your muscles! You can do that at home in just 15-20 minutes, 2-3 times a week.

16. Get the help of an expert.

See: Personal Trainer for Hire

3 Week Body Make Over
3-Week Body Makeover

All you need are walking shoes, a set of dumbbells, and 21 days

by Michele Stanten

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> Athlete: 4 Weeks to Your First 5-K
> The Pragmatist: 10 Minute Interval Workouts
> The Socialite's Walking Plan
> The Romantic's Walking Plan

Discussions

> Walking

Related Topics

> Strength & Weight Training
> Walking
> Walking Programs
> Walking and Weight Loss
> Workout Intensity

You can get a new body in less than a month--one with more energy, a revved up metabolism to burn extra calories, and a firmer, shapelier figure that will turn heads whether you're wearing jeans or a little black dress.

The secret to dropping pounds and inches quickly is high-intensity workouts. But don't panic--you don't have to run for miles or lift 50-pound dumbbells. What's high intensity for someone who's less fit may be low for you, or vice versa.

The point is to push out of your comfort zone so you boost your calorie burn an extra 25 to 50 percent in the same amount of time--and incinerate another 75 calories over the course of the day to boot.

This firm-up plan consists of three parts: a walking workout to burn fat, body shaping with weights, and tummy-toning calisthenics. The walking workout includes four walks (easy, interval, speed, and long), and the weight workout includes three routines (basic, light, and heavy). Mixing and matching them will keep you speeding along toward fabulous results.

Firm Up Plan At-a-Glance
Here is an overview of what you'll be doing. Most days you'll combine two of the three workouts.

Monday
Easy walk
Body shaping (basic)

Tuesday
Interval walk
Tummy toning

Wednesday
Easy walk
Body shaping (light weights)

Thursday
Interval walk
Tummy toning

Friday
Easy walk
Body shaping (heavy weights)

Saturday
Speed walk
Tummy toning

Sunday
Long walk

** Adapted from Prevention's Firm Up in 3 Weeks by Michele Stanten (Rodale Inc., 2004). To order, call (800) 848-4735 or visit www.rodalestore.com.

Fat-Burning Walking Workout
Crank up your calorie burn by starting with a variety of walking routines--from moderately paced jaunts to high-speed intervals--each week. Start and finish each of your workouts with 5 minutes of slow walking to warm up and cool down. Afterwards, move on to either the Body-Shaping Workout or Tummy-Toning Workout, depending on the day of the week. On Sunday, simply enjoy the walk--you've earned it!

Easy walk (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday)
It's "easy" because you don't have to really push yourself. Just get out and walk at a good pace, as if you were 5 minutes late for an appointment.

Week 1: 30 minutes
Week 2: 35 minutes
Week 3: 40 minutes

Interval walk (Tuesday and Thursday)
Here you'll pick up the pace--and your calorie burn--for about 30 to 90 seconds before slowing down to catch your breath. During the speed interval, you should be walking so that you're breathing hard and talking in full sentences is difficult.

Week 1: 4-minute moderate pace, 30-second speed interval; do 4 times = 18 minutes total
Week 2: 4-minute moderate pace, 60-second speed interval; do 4 times = 20 minutes total
Week 3: 3-minute moderate pace, 90-second speed interval; do 4 times = 18 minutes total

Speed Walk (Saturday)
Pick an easy-to-remember route that will take about 20 minutes to complete at a fast pace. Each week, try to cover the same distance in less time.

Long Walk (Sunday)
This is your endurance workout. Walk at a pace you can comfortably sustain for the recommended time. Focus on enjoying your jaunt, not on getting out and back fast.

Week 1: 40 minutes
Week 2: 50 minutes
Week 3: 60 minutes


Body-Shaping Workout
After your walk, do the Body-Shaping moves on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.

Lunge*

Bent-Over Row

Overhead Press

Push-Up

Reps
Basic (Monday)
Complete three sets of 10 to 12 repetitions for each exercise. Use weights heavy enough to make your last few reps challenging.

Light Weights (Wednesday)
Use lighter weights and do 3 full-rep, then 3 pulse-rep sequences three times for a total of 18 reps. For example, for the pulse reps of the overhead press, instead of bringing the weights down to shoulder height, stop at about the top of your head, then press them up three times from that position.

Heavy Weights (Friday)
Grab heavier weights and do three sets of 6 to 8 reps for each exercise.

Tummy-Toning Workout
After your walk, do the Tummy-Toning moves on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday.

Balance

Plank

Bridge

Twisting Crunch

For each workout, you'll do the same moves on the appropriate days, with weekly variations to make them more challenging.

Chart Your Progress
Make tracking your 21-day fitness plan easier by hanging this Fitness Log in plain sight--and using it. After every workout, simply check off the appropriate box (no, the walk times don't include warm-ups and cool-downs, but you have to do them anyway).

Prevention Articles and Diagrams

Genealogy In The Future With mtDNA
All we will have to do is look at a persons mtDNA to see how we are related.

See: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/neanderthals/mtdna.html for an intoduction in to mtDNA.

NOVA: Eve the Earliest Neanderthals
Tracing Ancestry with MtDNA
By Rick Groleau

In 1987, three scientists announced in the journal Nature that they had found a common ancestor to us all, a woman who lived in Africa 200,000 years ago. She was given the name "Eve," which was great for capturing attention, though somewhat misleading, as the name at once brought to mind the biblical Eve, and with it the mistaken notion that the ancestor was the first of our species -- the woman from whom all humankind descended.

The "Eve" in question was actually the most recent common ancestor through matrilineal descent of all humans living today. That is, all people alive today can trace some of their genetic heritage through their mothers back to this one woman. The scientists hypothesized this ancient woman's existence by looking within the cells of living people and analyzing short loops of genetic code known as mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA for short. In recent years, scientists have used mtDNA to trace the evolution and migration of human species, including when the common ancestor to modern humans and Neanderthals lived -- though there has been considerable debate over the validity and value of the findings.


In reproduction, the nuclear DNA of one parent mixes with the nuclear DNA of the other. MtDNA, on the other hand, passes on from mother to offspring unaltered.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------


Nuclear DNA vs mitochondrial DNA
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
When someone mentions human DNA, what do you think of? If you know a little about the topic, perhaps you think of the 46 chromosomes that inhabit the nucleus of almost every cell that comprises your body. These chromosomes hold the vast bulk of genetic information that you've inherited from your parents.

Outside the nucleus, but still within the cell, lie mitochondria. Mitochondria are tiny structures that help cells in a number of ways, including producing the energy that cells need. Each mitochondrion -- there are about 1,700 in every human cell -- includes an identical loop of DNA about 16,000 base pairs long containing 37 genes. In contrast, nuclear DNA consists of three billion base pairs and an estimated 70,000 genes. (This estimate has been revised upward several times since the announcement that the human genome had been decoded, and likely will be again.)


Inheriting mtDNA
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Whenever an egg cell is fertilized, nuclear chromosomes from a sperm cell enter the egg and combine with the egg's nuclear DNA, producing a mixture of both parents' genetic code. The mtDNA from the sperm cell, however, is left behind, outside of the egg cell.

So the fertilized egg contains a mixture of the father and mother's nuclear DNA and an exact copy of the mother's mtDNA, but none of the father's mtDNA. The result is that mtDNA is passed on only along the maternal line. This means that all of the mtDNA in the cells of a person's body are copies of his or her mother's mtDNA, and all of the mother's mtDNA is a copy of her mother's, and so on. No matter how far back you go, mtDNA is always inherited only from the mother.

If you went back six generations in your own family tree, you'd see that your nuclear DNA is inherited from 32 men and 32 women[1]. Your mtDNA, on the other hand, would have come from only one of those 32 women.



See the difference between mtDNA and nuclear DNA ancestry with this interactive family tree.

Go to "Tracing Ancestry with MtDNA"

(Requires Flash plugin)

Go to non-Flash version of "Tracing Ancestry with MtDNA"
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Defining mitochondrial ancestors
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Let's get back to "Eve." The ancestor referred to in the 1987 Nature article can be more precisely stated as "the most recent common ancestor through matrilineal descent of all humans living today." In other words, she is the most recent person from whom everyone now living on Earth has inherited his or her mtDNA. This certainly does not mean that she is the ancestral mother of all who came after her; during her time and even before her time there were many women and men who contributed to the nuclear genes we now carry. (To see how this can be, check out Tracing Ancestry.) It also does not mean that the mtDNA originated with this "Eve"; she and her contemporaries also had their own "most recent common ancestor though matrilineal descent," a woman who lived even further into the past who passed on her mtDNA to everyone living during "Eve's" time. (We get our mtDNA from that same, older ancestor. She's just not, to us, the most recent common ancestor.)

So what about all of the mtDNA of the other women who lived during "Eve's" time? What happened to it? Simply this: Somewhere between now and then, they had female descendants who had only sons (or no children). When this happened, the passing on of their mtDNA halted.


Finding mitochondrial ancestors
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Even though everyone on Earth living today has inherited his or her mtDNA from one person who lived long ago, our mtDNA is not exactly alike. Random mutations have altered the genetic code over the millennia. But these mutations are organized, in a way. For example, let's say that 10,000 years after the most recent common ancestor, one of the mtDNA branches experienced a mutation. From that point on, that line of mtDNA would include that alteration. Another branch might experience a mutation in a different location. This alteration would also be passed on. What we would eventually end up with are some descendants who have mtDNA that is exactly or very much like that of some people's, somewhat like that of others, and less like that of yet others. By looking at the similarities and differences of the mtDNA of all of these individuals, researchers could try to reconstruct where the branching took place.

This is what some researchers have done. For the original 1987 Nature article, the three authors (Rebecca Cann, Mark Stoneking, and Allan Wilson) looked at the mtDNA of 147 people from continents around the world (though for Africans, they relied on African Americans[2]). Later, with the help of a computer program, they put together a sort of family tree, grouping those with the most similar DNA together, then grouping the groups, and then grouping the groups of groups. The tree they ended up with showed that one of the two primary branches consisted only of African mtDNA and that the other branch consisted of mtDNA from all over the world, including Africa. From this, they inferred that the most recent common mtDNA ancestor was an African woman.[3]


Dating mitochondrial ancestors
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The three researchers went even further -- they estimated the age of the ancestor. To get the estimate, they made the assumption that the random mutations occurred at a steady rate. And since they now had an idea of how much the mtDNA had changed from the ancestor's, all they needed was the mutation rate to determine the age of the ancestor. For instance, if they took the mutation rate to be one in every 1,000 years and knew that there was a difference of 10 mutations between the mtDNA of people living today and the mtDNA of an ancestor who lived long ago, then they could infer that the ancestor lived 10,000 years ago.

Cann, Stoneking, and Wilson estimated the mutation rate by looking at the mtDNA of groups of people whose ancestors migrated to areas at known times. One group was Australian aborigines, whose ancestors moved to the island-continent a then-calculated 30,000 years ago.[4] Since the three then knew how long it took for that group's mtDNA to diverge as well as how much it diverged, they determined the mutation rate. Using this rate, they determined that the most recent common ancestor lived 140,000 to 290,000 years ago (which they roughly averaged to 200,000 years ago). That was back in 1987. Since then, researchers have updated the estimate to 120,000 to 150,000 years ago. However, the margin for error for this estimate and the previous one are significant -- when all of the variables are taken into account, the current range is more like 50,000 to 500,000.


Mitochondrial DNA is extracted from the bones of Neanderthals and compared to the mtDNA of living Homo sapiens.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------


Neanderthals and mtDNA
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Finding out about our most recent common ancestor relies solely on inferences from the mtDNA of people living today. What if we could actually compare our mtDNA with mtDNA of a distant ancestor? This, in fact, has been done, with mtDNA from the bones of Neanderthals. Comparing mtDNA of these Neanderthals to mtDNA of living people from various continents, researchers have found that the Neanderthals' mtDNA is not more closely related to that of people from any one continent over another. This was an unwelcome finding for anthropologists who believe that there was some interbreeding between Neanderthals and early modern humans living in Europe (which might have helped to explain why modern Europeans possess some Neanderthal-like features); these particular anthropologists instead would have expected the Neanderthals' mtDNA to be more similar to that of modern Europeans than to that of other peoples. Moreover, the researchers determined that the common ancestor to Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens lived as long as 500,000 years ago, well before the most recent common mtDNA ancestor of modern humans. This suggests (though it does not prove) that Neanderthals went extinct without contributing to the gene pool of any modern humans.


Final note
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
There are many variables that can affect the mutation rate of mtDNA, including even the possibility that mtDNA is not always inherited strictly through maternal lines. In fact, recent studies show that paternal mtDNA can on rare occasions enter an egg during fertilization and alter the maternal mtDNA through recombination. Such recombination would drastically affect the mutation rate and throw off date estimates.

Not surprisingly, there is currently a heated debate over the value of "mitochondrial Eve" -- especially between history-hunting geneticists and some fossil-finding paleoanthropologists. According to these anthropologists, even if we could accurately gauge the age of the ancestor, that knowledge is meaningless because all she really is is the woman whose mtDNA did not die out due to random lineage extinctions. Furthermore, her status as the most recent common ancestor doesn't mean that she and her contemporaries were any different from their ancestors. (Remember, she and all of her contemporaries had their own mitochondrial Eve.)

Perhaps the most valuable finding regarding the "most recent common ancestor" is that she probably lived in Africa -- a finding that supports the most popular theories about the worldwide spread of hominids.


Rick Groleau is managing editor of NOVA Online.


Notes
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Unless two or more of those 64 married each other and bore children from which you are descended. For example, your great-great-grandfather on your mother's side might have married and had children with your great-great-grandmother on your father's side. In that case, the number of your ancestors in this example would drop to 63.

2. Although the original study was criticized for using African Americans instead of native Africans, a subsequent study in which the researchers used mtDNA from native Africans came up with similar results.

3. Other researchers later showed that the computer program could come up with other variations of the tree, some of which did not place an African at the root of the tree. This study, then, cannot be viewed as definitive proof that the ancestor lived in Africa. However, it does still suggest that humans originated in Africa, a hypothesis that other, more recent studies support.

4. The date for the migration to Australia is now estimated to be 50,000 to 60,000 years ago.



Sources
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
"Human Evolution." Svante Paabo. Trends in Genetics. 15(12): M13-M16, 1999.

"Neanderthal DNA Sequences and the Origin of Modern Humans." Matthias Krings, et al. Cell, July 11, 1997.

"Mitochondrial DNA and Human Evolution." Rebecca L. Cann, Mark Stoneking, Allan C. Wilson. Nature, January 1, 1987.

"The Case of Mitochondrial Eve." Frank R. Zindler. American Atheist, February 1988.

Shreeve, James. The Neanderthal Enigma: Solving the Mystery of Modern Human Origins. New York: Avon Books, 1995.

Stringer, Christopher; Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson, Inc., 1993.


Related features on NOVA Online
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

How Cells Divide: Mitosis vs Meiosis
Journey into DNA
Sequence for Yourself


Photos: (1,2) WGBH/NOVA.

More About Credit Cards
A look at the marketing and advertising of credit cards in an increasingly saturated market and the techniques being used to recruitf new customers.


Andrew Becker is a student at the Graduate School of Journalism at the University of California, Berkeley. His articles have appeared in The Boston Globe, the San Francisco Chronicle and The Sacramento Bee.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/credit/more/battle.html

It seems to show up in the mailbox nearly every day: a credit card offer promising zero percent interest rates, free airline travel rewards or scratch-and-win promotions like Capital One's latest -- an offer to win a private tropical island.

Credit card marketers are on track in 2004 to break the industry record for credit card mail solicitations. According to Andrew Davidson, vice president of competitive tracking for Synovate, a Chicago-based research company, U.S. households will likely receive more than 5 billion credit card offers this year.

But despite this flood -- an average of six credit card offers sent to American households each month -- the response rate is only about one-third of 1 percent, says Davidson. The rest land in the garbage.

"That's right on the borderline of losing money," says author and marketing expert Seth Godin. Typically, a successful direct marketing campaign gets about a 1 percent response.

To counter the dismal response rate problem, marketers keep ratcheting up aggressive and expensive marketing, advertising and promotion campaigns. CardWeb CEO Robert McKinley, who has tracked the credit card industry for 18 years, expects that 2004 will mark the first time the major credit card networks (Visa, MasterCard, Discover and American Express) will top the $1 billion currently spent on advertising. Add to this the $4 billion spent on direct mail marketing costs and the result is at least $5 billion of marketing for this year alone, says McKinley.


? Zeroing In on the New Customer

So who's sending all of these offers?

Ninety percent of the direct mail marketing comes from the top 10 credit card issuers. And a lot of these issuers are monolines, like MBNA, which don't have physical branch offices. Lacking this, says Davidson, direct mail is their "major channel."

In those direct mail campaigns, the companies spend on average about $80 to market and process each new customer, according to R.K. Hammer, a privately-held bank card advisory firm. More than half of these offers involve a reward or a rebate incentive. And, in recent years, banks are copying what monolines like MBNA did so successfully in the 1990s: They offer products with built-in "stickiness" -- affinity cards -- to entice consumers. While banks compete on price with zero percent and teaser offers, they know that to keep those customers, they have to rely on more.

"It's the competitive nature of the mailbox," Davidson says. "We're seeing more and more of these. And they're more and more creative in reward and rebate schemes." He ascribes the current marketing increase to a modest improvement in the U.S. economy and the fear of a potential jump in the prime rate, which has spurred issuers to hype the opportunity to take advantage of current low rates before it's too late.


? Getting to Know You

But the marketers aren't just stuffing everyone's mailboxes with the same offer. As they increasingly hone in on an individual's gender and spending habits, different people in the same household get different, "customized" solicitations.

It's all due to the information technology revolution and the data that now can be mined from networked computer databases. (And it's certainly a long way from when Bank of America, back in 1958, first issued its credit card -- later to become the VISA card -- by simply mailing out unsolicited cards to roughly 60,000 residents of Fresno, Calif.)

Before the arrival of networked computer databases, credit cards marketing was based out of individual bank branches. When risk-based pricing came into play -- the practice of charging different interest rates to different people based on their credit risk -- the monolines seized the opportunity to offer lower annual percentage rates (APRs) through direct marketing, thus offering their cards to a far larger population.

What propelled this wider marketing was the use of "attributes" to identify and target consumers. Identifying particular attributes of a potential customer had started in the late '70s and early '80s -- the days before national credit bureaus -- with direct mailings from banks to their existent customer base. Back then, in order to target potential customers outside of their base, banks and credit cards companies turned to public records like marriage licenses, new home mortgages and data from gas card usage to identify people who might be predisposed to obtain credit.

With the boom of information technology during the 1990s, the marketers were able to start drawing on data culled from the national credit bureaus -- Experian, Equifax and TransUnion. Marketers created mini-profiles of existing and potential consumers based on people's spending habits, credit history, address and tendency to pay bills on time (or not). This information was crucial in creating ever more sophisticated marketing techniques.


? The Early Pioneers

The credit issuer Providian was one of the first companies involved in experimental marketing based on attributes. The company developed mathematical models that helped Providian "find" the right customers. By blending marketing response and credit history in its testing, Providian used gender and geography to select the precise advertisements and mail offers.

To see whether testing worked, Providian marketed to non-traditional populations who do not use credit cards or banking services (known in the industry as the "unbanked" population). Testing allowed Providian to look at two different individuals with the same credit history -- and who maintained the same revolving balance -- to see which person would most likely maintain his revolving balance. By analyzing when and how customers paid over a select time period, Providian could track how consumers who once paid their entire balance would start to pay less and less each month, then the minimum payment, and then fall behind. That's how they determined who'd be more likely to default.

Capital One was another pioneer in marketing cards to consumers through the intensive use of raw data and complex computer-based modeling, according to Chris Meyer, CEO of Monitor Networks in Cambridge, Mass. and the co-author of It's Alive, which features a case study of Capital One based on extensive interviews with the company.

By identifying lower-risk individuals in high-risk groups, Capital One was able to market to reliable consumers other companies wouldn't touch, says Meyer. In just six years, Capital One became the sixth-largest credit card issuer in the country. "When others were attacking the market with blunt instruments, Capital One used a scalpel," says Meyer.

Capital One was able to predict consumer response through models of targeted markets; then it would test these predictions with tens of thousands of product offers. In 2001, the company tried more than 60,000 separate tests to identify what the market wanted by watching which offers customers were responding to. This told the company which of the offers to roll out more widely. It also provided insight into what would not work, allowing updates for the next cycle.

Credit issuers also monitor whether a consumer's purchases go down over a certain time period -- a process known as "diminishment," that could lead to defection to another credit card company. If the signs are there, marketers might then send the customer new offers. They know the consumers must be using different cards because they aren't using theirs.


? The "Golden" Road to the Wallet

Over the last 40 years, the advertising of credit cards has evolved along with the marketing and the ads have mirrored credit cards' growing availability.

Back in the 1960s, American Express ads targeted the traveling business class with lines such as "Away-on-business-miss-your-wife-blues?" and "Another lonely business trip?" The message was, an American Express card cured the loneliness that "comes with the territory."

About the same time, in another magazine ad dating from 1965, American Express answered the question "Are credit cards for show-offs and status seekers? Not this one." But just three years later American Express began advertising its gold card with ad copy that read, "at a time when everyone seems to be giving away credit cards..."

According to CardWeb CEO Robert McKinley, 20 years ago, a gold VISA or MasterCard did mean prestige. With an annual fee of two to two-and-a-half times a standard card's fee, they offered a minimum credit line of $5,000 and various perks. And they were not available to just anyone. "Gold was perceived as 'affluence' at that time, given the marketing of the American Express gold card," says McKinley. "There was very little color choice in the market."

But then, starting with the deregulation of the banking industry in 1978, the advertising focus turned away from prestige to "merchant acceptance," says McKinley. And in the 1990s, as competition intensified, it shifted to pricing and perks.

During the past five years the marketers' focus has been on fraud protection and responsible card use. In recent years, for example, Citibank has aggressively marketed itself as a kinder, gentler credit card issuer. Its latest ad campaign, dubbed "Live Richly," features little bits of wisdom on television, billboards, bus shelters and phone kiosks. "You are not silver, gold, or platinum," Citibank tells potential customers. "You are you."

Mercedes Cardona, financial editor for the weekly trade magazine Advertising Age, says warm fuzzy campaigns like Citibank's are a response to consumers' frustration with bank giants like Citibank's parent company Citigroup, and the perception that such corporations care little about cardholders.

Most recently, with the economic downturn over the past few years, banks have come to realize that every customer counts, Cardona says. And this has spurred the personal touch, particularly with credit cards.

American Express designed its Blue Card for a younger, hip market. Clear or translucent cards are aimed at Generation X. Some cards issued in black -- be it the innovative American Express Centurion or the VISA Infinite or Signature -- are what Robert McKinley of CardWeb calls the "snob" cards. Cards like MBNA's Quantum can carry credit lines up to $250,000, with some going as high as $1 million -- "so, even if the private seller of a rare collectible doesn't accept credit cards, the Quantum Customer can simply write an access check," as one press release states. These cards come with a panoply of benefits, like concierge services, access to private jets and seven-figure travel insurance.

Today, consumers can even customize their own credit cards. "Have it your own way," is how Cardona describes the options, comparing the process to "getting a fast-food burger."

At Bank One's Web site, for instance, customers can choose from an affinity credit card menu, offering everything from The American Kennel Club and the Massachusetts Teachers Association to Yahoo and Disney. If none of the affinity cards grabs the customer's attention or purse strings, there are more than three dozen "unique card designs" to choose from, including cute kittens, all smiles and serenity.

First National Bank of Omaha is among those that have taken personalized card design to another level. Cardholders can choose their card's background from a personal photo, be it of a child, pet or nearly anything that comes to mind, and they can design the card online. Part of the personalization is allowing customers choice, Cardona said. But a lot of it has to do with getting customers online and lowering the cost of banking.


? The New Growth Sectors

During the 1990s, with much of the market saturated or nearing saturation, credit card companies began to look at two demographic groups on either end of the financial scale they previously had avoided: "subprime" consumers who weren't perceived as creditworthy, such as students, young people, and others with poor or no credit history; and affluent customers who didn't need credit (and who now are being targeted with the aforementioned customized cards). These two groups have become the biggest growth areas for the companies, says CardWeb's McKinley.

According to CardWeb, there are some 25 million American households who do not have a banking relationship. Credit card issuers went after this market vigorously in the 1990s, charging high interest rates and fees, and extending credit to millions of people. However, it was a bust for issuers and it still haunts the industry, says McKinley.

Credit card issuers also began pursuing college students, a previously unattractive market because students don't have a credit history and many don't have a steady income. But by the mid-1990s, Congress was holding committee hearings on the impact that "kiddie credit cards" had on young people. And following a lot of bad press on the growing number of students in debt, some universities have started regulating or banning credit card marketers from making campus visits with offers of free t-shirts in exchange for setting up a new account.

But the companies have returned to the subprime market lately, targeting them with increasingly popular prepaid cards. The recently introduced "Hello Kitty" card and another card featuring the mug of pop music star Usher are evidence that pre-teens and other subprime consumers are no longer off limits.


? The Perk Wars

Since the mid-1980s, when Discover introduced the first cash-back product, credit card marketers have been racking their collective brains for perks to entice consumers. AT&T launched its no-annual-fee-for-life Universal Card in 1990, which eventually drove annual fees out of the market, according to McKinley. Although industry experts thought the perk wars would be over by now, they rage on, he says.

The hot things now are prepaid cards and around the corner, the "super" smart cards, which can carry information far beyond just listing your account balance. Such cards can track and manage rewards points; store a cardholder's medical information; provide access to subways, buses and even buildings; or be used as either a credit, debit or prepaid card, so you can pay now or later.

Part of the reason these haven't as yet caught on in the United States is privacy concerns. But if Americans are worried about who knows what about them, they're a little behind. Credit card companies know where you live, who you are and what you want. And as competition intensifies, they're willing and able to spend the money to find out more.

The Battle For Your Wallet

8 CREDIT CARD COMPANY TRICKS AND TIPS
1> Even if you make your credit card payments on time, the credit card bank can raise your interest rate automatically if you're late on payments elsewhere -- such as on another credit card or on a phone, car, or house payment -- or simply because the bank feels you have taken on too much debt.

This practice is called the "universal default" clause and increasingly is becoming a standard clause in credit card agreements. According to credit card executives, the logic behind universal default is that the bank is not being unreasonable in raising rates when it has reason to believe that the risk of being repaid by the customer has increased. [Note: Credit card banks can now easily track your everyday financial activities and monitor your credit score -- see below.]


2> Your credit score -- known as a FICO score -- has become a vital statistic for many Americans and can be widely shared. It is used to determine how much you can borrow, how much you pay for life insurance, if you can rent a home, and, as already noted, it can be a factor in determining the interest rate you pay on a credit card.

Most Americans don't know what their credit score is, nor how it's computed and with whom it's shared. Your credit score is usually determined by five factors, with the most important being the amount you currently owe and your payment history on large debts. (Find out much more about your credit score and how it's tracked, by reading: Credit Scores - What Your Should Know About Your Own.)


3> There is no limit on the amount a credit card company can charge a cardholder for being even an hour late with a payment.

In 1996, the U.S. Supreme Court in Smiley vs. Citibank lifted the existing restrictions on late penalty fees. Back then, fees ran to $5 or $10, and usually did not exceed $15. After the Court's decision, fees soared, reaching upwards of $30. Since then, the amount of revenue the companies generate from fees (including late charges, over-the-limit fees, and charges for returned checks) has doubled. Duncan MacDonald, one of the lawyers who worked on the Smiley case, predicts penalty fees could rise to $50 in another year.


4> It's important to read the fine print on your credit card agreement.

Not many people do, however. Even credit card executives and consumer advocates admitted to FRONTLINE that the last time they read their own contracts was years ago and the credit card agreement is difficult to understand. Tucked into the fine print that people so often ignore is a clause that allows the company to change your interest rate (APR) at any time, for any reason, as long as they give you 15 days' notice. (So, Read the Fine Print.)


5> Many Americans are inattentive about their credit card accounts.

Approximately 35 million Americans pay only the required minimum -- as low as 2 percent -- of their balance each month. Sticking to that rate, it could take years to clear their debt and they'll end up paying far more than the cost of the items or services they bought.

However, many of these 35 million cardholders could pay more than the minimum, and could possibly even pay off in full their balance some months. But they don't -- even though the interest rate they are paying on their credit card balance is considerably higher than what they pay on other things and compared to what they're getting in interest income from their savings account. Is this "financial illiteracy," or just human beings' "irrational behavior?" (Read our report, Credit Cards and Personal Responsibility. Or, try our "Payment Calculator" to see how long it would take you to pay off a balance if you paid just the 2 percent minimum each month.)


6> There is no federal limit on the interest rate a credit card company can charge.

If you've ever looked at the return address on your statement, you may notice your credit card issuer is located in a state such as South Dakota or Delaware. That's because these are the states that have either weak or no "usury laws" meaning there is no cap on the interest rate that is charged. The federal government once had national usury laws that set a cap on the amount of interest that could be charged on a loan. But after the Great Depression, it repealed them and some states put no new ursury laws in place. That's why Citibank, the issuer of Mastercard, moved to South Dakota, which has no cap on interest rates. (For more on the South Dakota story and how the credit card industry took off in the 1980s, read The Ascendancy of the Credit Card Industry.)
Related Links

7> Credit Scores
What you should understand about your own.


8> The Fine Print
What's tucked into that credit card agreement?


> Where You Can Go
A list of reputable organizations for filing a complaint against a credit card company and getting advice on financial problems.


> Charge It!
Examining the issue of credit cards and personal responsibility.


> Try This Payment Calculator
How long will it take to pay off a balance if you were to pay just the 2 percent monthly minimum?



Poll: What's Your Balance?

The average American household is carrying a credit card balance of $7500 to $8,000. What's yours?

Note: As the producers of this report found out, it's hard to get people to talk about their credit card debt. But this poll is completely anonymous, so we invite you to answer honestly.


$0 - $500


$500 - $1000


$1000 - $2000


$2000 - $5000


$5000 - $10000


$10000 - $15000


$15000+





Which Are You?

Here's the credit card industry's jargon for its customer categories:

"Revolvers" roll credit card balances over month to month, never paying in full.

"Deadbeats" pay their balances off in full every month.

"Rate Surfers" or "Gamers" shift usage between credit cards based upon interest rates.




> Significant credit card debt can put you at a markedly higher risk of bankruptcy.

Going bankrupt usually isn't the result of spending sprees. It's more commonly triggered by job loss, medical problems, or a divorce. Those hit by any of these misfortunes often turn to credit cards to stay float. But if they have trouble finding new sources of income or an illness keeps them off the job, they often cannot pay off their debt quickly, especially if their interest rate is high. "They get their feet tangled up in those high interest rates," says bankruptcy expert Elizabeth Warren, "and they just get sunk."


> You can get help. (I seriously doubt it) ed. My best bet is to have Congress pass a Bill to get the Industry into some sort of order and fairness. See People who may help

Several trustworthy organizations exist that can advise people whose debt has spiraled out of control, or those who feel they've been treated unfairly by their credit card companies. For a list of groups offering free advice and for contact information on how to file a complaint if you feel you have been unfairly treated by your credit card company, read our suggestions on "Where To Go."

Frontline Show 23 Nov 2004

620 AM WKHB Radio


620 AM WKHB Radio Coverage Map (approximate)

Daytime 5,500 Watts Non-directional Signal

Irwin/Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

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